The person behind the name
Julia Letlow’s public career runs from university administration to the House Appropriations Committee and, in 2026, a Senate nomination.
Letlow has represented Louisiana’s 5th Congressional District since April 2021. Her official biography says she took office after receiving 65 percent of the vote in a special election for the seat previously won by her husband, Luke Letlow, who died of complications of COVID-19. The Associated Press reported that she won the Republican nomination for U.S. Senate on June 27, 2026. A KNOE report of the Secretary of State’s qualifying list names her and Democrat Jamie Davis for the November 3 general election. [1][3][4][9]
Education and professional preparation
Her official biography reports a Bachelor of Arts and a Master of Arts in speech communication from the University of Louisiana Monroe and a doctorate in communication from the University of South Florida. It gives no year for the doctorate. The Louisiana Illuminator reported in May 2026 that she obtained the Ph.D. in 2012 and that her dissertation focused on sudden family loss. Ballotpedia’s summary lists 2011. The Illuminator’s profile is dated May 8, 2026; Ballotpedia’s summary is undated. [9][12][31]
A career in university administration
At the University of Louisiana Monroe, her official biography lists service as ombudsperson and special projects coordinator for the provost, as director of marketing and communications, and, from 2018 to 2019, as executive director of external affairs and strategic communications. At Tulane University School of Medicine it lists her as director of education, director of resident patient safety and quality improvement, and a clinical instructor of anesthesiology. [9]
The Illuminator reported that she worked under the university’s president for the ten years of his tenure and applied unsuccessfully to succeed him. The Associated Press dates her interview for the presidency to 2020. When she was sworn in, the AP described her as a university administrator making her first run for public office. [3][11][12]
Home and district
Her official biography calls her a native of Monroe. The Clerk of the House lists her hometown as Start. The Illuminator reported in May 2026 that she had relocated her family from the Monroe area to Baton Rouge, and its September 2026 coverage identifies her as a Baton Rouge Republican. [9][10][12][27]
A note on Louisiana’s new primary system. The 2026 Senate nomination was decided under Louisiana’s new closed party primaries. Act 1 of the 2024 First Extraordinary Session created them for certain offices, effective January 1, 2026. Act 1 of the 2025 First Extraordinary Session made adjustments to certain elections held in 2026; the legislative page read for this profile does not print dates. Reporting places the Republican primary on May 16 and the runoff on June 27. The Secretary of State’s calendar, last revised in November 2024, still shows the earlier April 18 and May 30 dates. [4][5][6][7][28]
Life & public service
The documented milestones run from a university post to a House seat and a Senate nomination.
External affairs at ULM
Served as executive director of external affairs and strategic communications at the University of Louisiana Monroe, according to her official biography. [9]
A nondisclosure agreement
Signed a nondisclosure agreement on June 29 with Laidley LLC, which Gulf States Newsroom described as a shell company of Meta Platforms. The agreement and her later stock disclosures became a subject of reporting in 2026. [26]
Senate campaign begins
President Donald Trump endorsed her in January, before she declared, the AP reported. She filed a statement of candidacy with the Federal Election Commission on January 20. NBC News, citing two sources, reported that she announced at a closed-door business breakfast in Baton Rouge. [3][16][28]
On the November ballot
KNOE’s report of the Secretary of State’s list, updated August 7 under the headline “Candidate qualifying ends for the November election,” showed two U.S. Senate candidates: Letlow and Democrat Jamie Davis. Its list for the 5th District House seat does not include her. [1]
Accomplishments, in the record
Legislation and official documents establish the following work. Outcomes are described at the level supported by those records, with shared credit where other officials were principal authors.
Winning the 5th District seat
Letlow’s official House biography says she took office in April 2021 after receiving 65 percent of the vote in a special election for the seat previously won by her husband. It describes her as the state’s first Republican woman elected to Congress and the first woman to represent Louisiana in the House in 30 years. [9]
The Associated Press reported that she took the oath of office from Speaker Nancy Pelosi and called her the first female Republican elected to Congress from Louisiana. The Illuminator reported in 2026 that she had since secured re-election twice. Certified vote totals are not printed here because the Secretary of State’s results portal could not be read for this review. [11][12]
A seat on House Appropriations
The Clerk of the House and her official biography list Letlow on the Committee on Appropriations and on the education committee, which her biography calls the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Clerk prints as the Committee on Education and Workforce. Her biography names three Appropriations subcommittees: Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration; Labor, Health and Human Services, and Education; and National Security and the Department of State. [9][10]
A January 31, 2023 release from her office said she would continue on Appropriations, with seats on the Agriculture, Labor-HHS-Education, and Energy and Water Development subcommittees. These records establish assignments. They do not itemize funding outcomes. [20]
House passage of H.R. 5
Her office’s release identifies H.R. 5, the Parents Bill of Rights Act, as Letlow’s bill. The Clerk’s record shows the House passed it on March 24, 2023, by 213–208. All 213 votes in favor came from Republicans; five Republicans and 203 Democrats voted no. Letlow is recorded as Aye. [18][19]
The release lists five stated rights for parents: to know what their children are being taught, to be heard, to see the school budget and spending, to protect their child’s privacy, and to keep their children safe. It said the bill would move to the Senate to await further action. The sources read here do not establish any Senate vote. Her 2026 campaign plan lists passing a national Parents’ Bill of Rights as a goal. [15][18]
Three recorded votes on major bills
On November 5, 2021, Letlow was recorded as Nay when the House agreed to the Senate amendment to H.R. 3684, listed by the Clerk as the INVEST in America Act. The motion passed 228–206. Thirteen Republicans voted yes and 200 voted no. [21]
On May 31, 2023, she was recorded as Aye on passage of H.R. 3746, the Fiscal Responsibility Act, which passed 314–117. Republicans divided 149–71 and Democrats 165–46. [22]
On July 3, 2025, she was recorded as Aye when the House agreed, 218–214, to the Senate amendment to H.R. 1, the One Big Beautiful Bill Act. Two Republicans and 212 Democrats voted no. The Clerk’s pages establish the votes and tallies; they do not describe the bills’ contents. [23]
A bill on FEMA leadership
A May 12, 2026 release from her office announced the No Delays in Disaster Relief Act. In it Letlow said the bill “would ensure that even when administrations change, FEMA leaders have the authority to meet the needs of our people when disaster strikes.” The release does not report committee or floor action on the bill. [24]
What the FEC filings show
Letlow’s statement of candidacy, filed January 20, 2026, designates Julia Letlow for Louisiana as her principal campaign committee and lists the Letlow Victory Fund as another authorized committee. [16]
The committee’s July quarterly report covers June 8 through June 30, 2026. It shows election-cycle-to-date receipts of $6,134,323.10, of which $4,007,113.59 were transfers from other authorized committees and $2,127,152.51 were contributions. It reports $1,427,072.13 in cash on hand at the close of the period and no debts. [17]
Family & community
Her official biography describes Letlow as the mother of two children, Jacqueline and Jeremiah, and a native of Monroe. It says her husband, Luke, died of complications of COVID-19 after winning the 5th District seat. Her campaign biography says she was born and raised in Monroe. [9][13]
The Illuminator reported in May 2026 that she had moved her family from the Monroe area to Baton Rouge. [12]
Neither her official biography nor her campaign biography states a religious affiliation. Her campaign home page says she knows what it means “to serve with faith, strength, and purpose” and names no denomination. This profile makes no claim about one. [9][13][14]
Her mission for Louisiana
Implement a conservative, America first agenda and never forget about the people who elected her.
The following summarizes the policy plan on Letlow’s official campaign website. These are proposed priorities, not completed accomplishments. [15]
01Border & immigration
Finish construction of the border wall, deport “criminal illegal aliens and gang members,” designate Mexican drug cartels as foreign terrorist organizations, and require E-Verify nationwide. [15]
02Taxes & household costs
Permanently extend the Trump tax cuts, make the One Big Beautiful Bill’s no-tax-on-tips provision permanent, expand and protect the Child Tax Credit, and increase energy production to bring down gas and utility bills. [15]
03Parents & schools
A national Parents’ Bill of Rights, a requirement that schools notify parents about major decisions involving their children, expanded school choice, and penalties for education institutions “hiding DEI programs.” [15]
04Women’s sports & minors
The plan’s wording is “Keep biological men out of women’s sports.” It would also codify protections for women’s athletics under Title IX and ban gender transition procedures for minors. [15]
05Elections
Pass what the plan calls President Trump’s Save America Act, require proof of citizenship to vote in federal elections, strengthen voter ID requirements, and ban foreign interference in American elections. [15]
06Congressional ethics & spending
Ban members of Congress from trading individual stocks, strengthen financial disclosure requirements, and codify DOGE spending cuts. [15]
07Energy
Expand oil and natural gas production, accelerate LNG export approvals, refill the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, and expand offshore energy development in what the plan calls the Gulf of America. [15]
08Farms, flood insurance & coast
Deliver a Farm Bill, ban Chinese ownership of American farmland, expand rural broadband, reform the National Flood Insurance Program, roll back premium increases the plan calls unfair, and protect and expand GOMESA revenue sharing. [15]
How to assess a proposal. A campaign plan states an intention. Enactment, implementation costs, replacement revenue, and measured results are separate questions. These priorities should be read alongside the documented record above.
The fuller record
A useful profile includes policy tradeoffs, the limits of a claim, and responses to material criticism.
Late stock-trade disclosures
Gulf States Newsroom reported on August 11, 2026, in the Louisiana Illuminator, that a periodic transaction report Letlow filed in January disclosed 210 stock trades from the prior two years that were not reported on time, 100 of them more than a year late. It put their combined value between $225,000 and $3,185,000, the broad ranges members report, and cited the STOCK Act’s 45-day deadline. The House filing read for this profile is signed January 13, 2026. Her spokesperson, Matt Smith, said in a written statement that she had no role in directing any of her trades, the outlet reported. It also reported that she supported the Stop Insider Trading Act, which passed the House in July 2026. The report, as read for this review, describes no complaint, investigation or penalty; it notes that the House Ethics Committee would have jurisdiction. [25][26]
The Meta nondisclosure agreement
The same report said Letlow signed a nondisclosure agreement on June 29, 2024 with Laidley LLC, which it described as a shell company of Meta Platforms, and began buying Meta and Nvidia stock within months. Her House filing lists Meta purchases dated October 23, 2024 and January 31, 2025, each valued at $1,001 to $15,000, with a notification date of August 11, 2025. Smith said the NDA played no part in the trades because she was unaware they were happening, and that it “was limited in scope to protecting preliminary business information.” Kedric Payne of the Campaign Legal Center told the outlet that “you have a lawmaker who appears to have access to non-public information and trades stock in a company related to that non-public information.” On September 16, 2026, the Illuminator reported that her campaign spokesperson did not respond to multiple requests for comment about the NDA. The reports do not establish that any trade relied on non-public information. [25][26][27]
A changed position on DEI
The Illuminator reported on May 8, 2026 that opponents, particularly Senator Bill Cassidy, attacked Letlow for having endorsed diversity, equity and inclusion practices as a college administrator and for describing herself as a “progressive leader” when she applied to lead the University of Louisiana Monroe. The AP reported that she said she supported DEI while interviewing for that post in 2020 and said in 2026 that she opposes it. Letlow told the Illuminator: “But what I saw firsthand was that it was hijacked by the radical left and turned into something else entirely.” She added, “Once that became clear, I opposed it.” The AP also reported that Fleming reposted an AI-generated video that purported to show her discussing DEI. [3][12]
Debates and joint appearances
During the primary, the Illuminator reported, Letlow took part in a debate hosted by radio host Moon Griffon and defended skipping televised debates, saying it was important to use a format that “actually reaches Louisiana Republican voters.” On September 16, 2026, the outlet reported that Letlow had not agreed to appear in person with Jamie Davis for debates or other events. Davis tied that to her nondisclosure agreement, saying she “might break her NDA” if asked about Meta. A day earlier it reported that her campaign did not answer questions about whether she planned to meet with LSU students before the election. [8][12][27]
What the $130 million claim establishes
Letlow’s campaign biography says she “secured over $130 million in targeted support for Louisiana.” The government records read for this profile establish her Appropriations Committee seat and her subcommittee assignments. They do not itemize that total or attribute specific projects to her alone. The figure is presented here as a campaign claim. [9][13][20]
Endorsement and a conservative scorecard
The AP reported that President Trump endorsed Letlow in January 2026, before she declared, and her campaign site cites his “complete and total endorsement.” An endorsement establishes political support; it is not an independent evaluation of a record. The campaign site calls her a “conservative fighter.” Heritage Action’s scorecard page for Letlow, read on September 17, 2026, displayed a session score of 94% and a lifetime score of 81%. A scorecard reflects the votes its publisher selects, and the page read did not show a House Republican average for comparison. [3][14][30]
Questions & answers
Who is Julia Letlow?
Julia Letlow is the U.S. representative for Louisiana’s 5th Congressional District, in office since April 2021, and a former administrator at the University of Louisiana Monroe and Tulane University School of Medicine. She serves on the House Appropriations Committee and the Committee on Education and the Workforce. [9][10]
What office is Julia Letlow running for in 2026?
Who is Julia Letlow running against?
When is the election?
What happened to Senator Bill Cassidy?
Cassidy, the incumbent, finished third in the May 16, 2026 Republican primary with nearly 25 percent, behind Letlow and John Fleming, the AP reported. The Illuminator reported that he was knocked out of the race and must step down in January. This profile relies on those reports because the state’s results portal could not be read. [3][8]
What are Julia Letlow’s main campaign priorities?
Her campaign plan lists finishing the border wall, permanently extending the Trump tax cuts, a national Parents’ Bill of Rights, proof of citizenship to vote in federal elections, a ban on stock trading by members of Congress, expanded oil and gas production, and changes to the National Flood Insurance Program. These are proposals. [15]
What has Julia Letlow done in office?
Her office identifies H.R. 5, the Parents Bill of Rights Act, as her bill; the House passed it 213–208 on March 24, 2023. She holds a seat on the Appropriations Committee. The Clerk records her as Aye on the 2023 Fiscal Responsibility Act and the 2025 One Big Beautiful Bill Act, and Nay on H.R. 3684 in 2021. [9][18][19][21][22][23]
The sources behind the story
Primary government documents anchor the record. Official biographies establish attributed background; original reporting supplies election results and scrutiny. Campaign materials are used for the candidate’s own priorities and claims.
- 01Candidate qualifying ends for the November electionKNOE (Monroe, La.) · Updated Aug. 7, 2026
Charles Quigley’s report lists the candidates shown as qualified on the Secretary of State’s website: Jamie Davis (Democrat) and Julia Letlow (Republican) for U.S. Senate. It is a news report of the authority’s list, not the list itself.Independent reporting - 02Letlow rides Trump endorsement to US Senate GOP ticket win; Davis cinches Democratic bidLouisiana Illuminator · June 27, 2026
Runoff-night report by Greg LaRose, Wesley Muller and Elise Plunk: the AP projection, Letlow’s 57% finish, and Jamie Davis’s background and Democratic runoff win. Percentages are election-night figures, not certified totals.Independent reporting - 03U.S. Rep. Julia Letlow, endorsed by Trump, wins the GOP primary for Senate in LouisianaAssociated Press / PBS News · June 28, 2026
AP report by Thomas Beaumont and Jack Brook: the nomination, the May 16 primary shares for Letlow, Fleming and Cassidy, the January endorsement, and the DEI dispute. Shares are rounded as reported.Independent reporting - 042026 Elections (dates are subject to change by the Legislature)Louisiana Secretary of State · Accessed Sep. 17, 2026
Official calendar, marked revised 11/2024: November 3 congressional general election, early voting October 20–27, and a footnote on party primaries. Its April 18 and May 30 primary dates predate the 2025 adjustment and are outdated.Government / regulatory record - 05HB 17, 2024 First Extraordinary Session: closed party primary elections (Act 1)Louisiana State Legislature · Signed Jan. 22, 2024
Bill history for Rep. Julie Emerson’s measure providing closed party primary elections for certain offices: signed as Act No. 1, effective January 1, 2026.Government / regulatory record - 06SB 1, 2025 First Extraordinary Session: adjustments to 2026 elections (Act 1)Louisiana State Legislature · Signed Oct. 30, 2025
Bill history for Sen. Caleb Kleinpeter’s measure adjusting certain elections held in 2026, signed October 30, 2025 as Act No. 1. The page read does not print the new election dates.Government / regulatory record - 07By the numbers: Analyzing Letlow’s first-place Senate primary finishLouisiana Illuminator · May 19, 2026
Greg LaRose’s analysis of the May 16 primary: Letlow 45% of more than 401,000 Republican votes, Fleming 28%, Cassidy 25%, and the June 27 runoff date. Rounded figures; not a certified canvass.Independent reporting - 08Democratic Senate hopeful Jamie Davis avoids GOP talk at LSU voter eventLouisiana Illuminator · Sep. 15, 2026
Julie O’Donoghue’s report confirms the Davis–Letlow general election on November 3, Cassidy’s elimination in the May primary, and the Letlow campaign’s non-response about an LSU appearance.Independent reporting - 09Official biography of Congresswoman Julia LetlowOffice of U.S. Rep. Julia Letlow · Accessed Sep. 17, 2026
Official House biography: district, 2021 special election share, committee and subcommittee seats, degrees, university posts and family. Its statements of firsts are the office’s own description. It gives no degree years and no religious affiliation.Government / regulatory record - 10Member profile: Julia Letlow (L000595)Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives · Accessed Sep. 17, 2026
Clerk’s member page: Louisiana’s 5th District, Republican, hometown listed as Start, and committee assignments including Appropriations subcommittees.Government / regulatory record - 11AP report on Julia Letlow’s swearing-inAssociated Press / The Advocate · Apr. 2021
AP account of the oath of office administered by Speaker Nancy Pelosi, the first-female-Republican description, and Luke Letlow’s death on December 29, 2020. The page read did not print a date; the swearing-in was in April 2021.Independent reporting - 12Julia Letlow touts MAGA clout as opponents attack her DEI pastLouisiana Illuminator · May 8, 2026
Piper Hutchinson’s candidate profile: the DEI criticism and Letlow’s response, her doctorate, her years at UL-Monroe, the move to Baton Rouge, and her stance on televised debates.Independent reporting - 13About: campaign biographyJulia Letlow for Louisiana · Accessed Sep. 17, 2026
Campaign biography. Source of the $130 million claim and the campaign’s stated purpose. Its claims are attributed, not independently verified.Campaign source - 14Julia Letlow: official campaign homepageJulia Letlow for Louisiana · Accessed Sep. 17, 2026
Campaign messaging, the committee disclaimer and the campaign’s social-media links. The page read does not mention the general-election opponent.Campaign source - 15Julia’s PlanJulia Letlow for Louisiana · Accessed Sep. 17, 2026
The campaign’s policy plan, used for the priorities section. These are proposals, not enacted measures.Campaign source - 16FEC Form 2: Statement of Candidacy, Julia Letlow (FEC-1933932)Federal Election Commission · Filed Jan. 20, 2026
Statement of candidacy for U.S. Senate, Louisiana: candidate ID S6LA00664, principal campaign committee Julia Letlow for Louisiana (C00935411), other authorized committee Letlow Victory Fund (C00816058).Government / regulatory record - 17FEC Form 3: July Quarterly report, Julia Letlow for Louisiana (FEC-1997044)Federal Election Commission · Filed July 15, 2026
Summary page for June 8–30, 2026: cycle-to-date receipts, contributions, transfers from other authorized committees, disbursements, closing cash and debts. The most recent regular report on file at review.Government / regulatory record - 18Letlow’s Parents Bill of Rights Passes the HouseOffice of U.S. Rep. Julia Letlow · Mar. 23, 2023
Office release identifying H.R. 5 as Letlow’s bill, the 213–208 tally and the five stated rights. The page prints March 23, 2023; the Clerk dates the vote March 24. It does not establish Senate action.Government / regulatory record - 19Roll Call 161: H.R. 5, Parents Bill of Rights Act, On PassageOffice of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives · Mar. 24, 2023
Official tally: passed 213–208; Republicans 213–5, Democrats 0–203, 14 not voting. Letlow recorded Aye.Government / regulatory record - 20Letlow Named to Critical Appropriations SubcommitteesOffice of U.S. Rep. Julia Letlow · Jan. 31, 2023
Office release on her 2023 Appropriations subcommittee seats and continued committee service. Assignments only; no funding totals.Government / regulatory record - 21Roll Call 369: H.R. 3684, On Motion to Concur in the Senate AmendmentOffice of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives · Nov. 5, 2021
Official tally: passed 228–206; Democrats 215–6, Republicans 13–200. Letlow recorded Nay. The Clerk’s page titles the bill the INVEST in America Act; the profile does not characterize its contents.Government / regulatory record - 22Roll Call 243: H.R. 3746, Fiscal Responsibility Act, On PassageOffice of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives · May 31, 2023
Official tally: passed 314–117; Republicans 149–71, Democrats 165–46, four not voting. Letlow recorded Aye.Government / regulatory record - 23Roll Call 190: H.R. 1, One Big Beautiful Bill Act, On Motion to Concur in the Senate AmendmentOffice of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives · July 3, 2025
Official tally: passed 218–214; Republicans 218–2, Democrats 0–212. Letlow recorded Aye.Government / regulatory record - 24Letlow Bill Improves FEMA Operations, Speeds Up Disaster ReliefOffice of U.S. Rep. Julia Letlow · May 12, 2026
Office release announcing the No Delays in Disaster Relief Act, with Letlow’s statement. It reports no committee or floor action.Government / regulatory record - 25Periodic Transaction Report, Hon. Julia Letlow (Filing ID 20030977)Office of the Clerk, U.S. House of Representatives · Signed Jan. 13, 2026
House financial disclosure filing listing stock transactions with transaction dates, notification dates and value ranges, including Meta Platforms and Nvidia entries. It carries no explanatory comments and makes no finding about timeliness.Government / regulatory record - 26Rep. Julia Letlow bought Meta stock after signing an NDA with the company, records showGulf States Newsroom / Louisiana Illuminator · Aug. 11, 2026
Drew Hawkins’s report on the June 29, 2024 NDA, the Meta and Nvidia trades, the late disclosures and the spokesperson’s response. It quotes an ethics lawyer’s criticism; it reports no complaint, investigation or penalty.Independent reporting - 27NDA secrecy for major projects hovers over Louisiana’s congressional electionsLouisiana Illuminator · Sep. 16, 2026
Julie O’Donoghue’s report: the campaign spokesperson did not respond to requests for comment about the NDA; Jamie Davis’s statement that Letlow has not agreed to joint appearances. Davis’s explanation is his own.Independent reporting - 28Rep. Julia Letlow launches Louisiana Senate primary bid against Bill CassidyNBC News · Jan. 2026
Launch report: the Baton Rouge announcement, Trump’s endorsement post, Cassidy’s response, and the closed Republican primary on May 16. The page read did not print a publication date.Independent reporting - 29Trump-backed Julia Letlow wins GOP Senate runoff in LouisianaRoll Call · June 27, 2026
Daniela Altimari’s runoff-night report, citing the AP: 57 percent to 43 percent with more than 95 percent of votes counted, and Jamie Davis as the general-election opponent.Independent reporting - 30Heritage Action Scorecard: Rep. Julia LetlowHeritage Action for America · Accessed Sep. 17, 2026
Advocacy group’s scorecard page showing a session score of 94% and a lifetime score of 81% on the review date. One organization’s selection of votes; the page read showed no comparison average.Independent analysis / professional record - 31Julia LetlowBallotpedia · Accessed Sep. 17, 2026
Used only for the April 14, 2021 assumption-of-office date and for its 2011 doctorate year, which conflicts with the Illuminator’s 2012. Not used for 2026 ballot status.Independent analysis / professional record
No matching sources. Try “Senate”, “election” or “campaign.”
Scope & method. Reviewed September 17, 2026. This is a documented overview of publicly available biography, major actions, and stated priorities, not an exhaustive vote-by-vote record. Numerical claims retain their original meaning and attribution. Historical sources do not imply current appointments. Primary and runoff percentages are given as reported by news organizations because the Louisiana Secretary of State’s results portal could not be read for this review. The source list provides direct links so readers can check the underlying material. Election lists, filings, and campaign pages may change after this review.
Images. Conservative Ledger masthead supplied by the site creator. Images are published with their credit, licence and source page beneath each one: U.S. House of Representatives (Public domain). No campaign, press-agency or stock photograph is used. Inclusion does not imply campaign authorization or endorsement of this publication.
Where to find the candidate
Every link below was read from the campaign’s own website or the candidate’s official government page. A follower count is printed only where it was measured; otherwise the link is published and the number is left blank rather than guessed at.